Table of Contents
-
FICTION
Multiple Authors
i. Traditional Forms. ii. Modern Fiction. ii(a). Historical Background. ii(b). The Novel. ii(c). The Short Story. ii(d). The Post-Revolutionary Short Story. ii(e). Post-Revolutionary Fiction Abroad. ii(f). By Persians in Non-Persian Languages. ii(g). In Afghanistan. ii(h). In Tajikistan.
-
FICTION, i
J. T. P. de Bruijn
OVERVIEW of the entry: i. TRADITIONAL FORMS. This article deals with all kinds of stories written for specifically literary purposes up to the time when narrative prose in the modern style, derived from the West, was introduced in Persia.
-
FICTION, ii(a)
SĪMĪN BEHBAHĀNĪ and EIr
ii(a). HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MODERN FICTION. The long reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96) and the Constitutional Revolution a decade after his death witnessed the gradual emergence of modern fiction in Persia.
-
FICTION, ii(b)
Houra Yavari
ii(b). THE NOVEL.
-
FICTION, ii(c)
Jamāl Mīrṣādeqī
ii(c). THE SHORT STORY. Historically, the modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.
-
FICTION, ii(d)
Houra Yavari
ii(d). THE POST-REVOLUTIONARY SHORT STORY. The post-revolutionary short story is marked by its formal sophistication and has carved out a distinct and experimental space of its own in fiction.
-
FICTION, ii(e)
Houra Yavari
ii(e). POST-REVOLUTIONARY FICTION ABROAD. Not only were the novel and short story imported genres, the very first works of Persian fiction were either written or first published outside Persia.
-
FICTION, ii(f)
Houra Yavari
ii(f). BY PERSIANS IN NON-PERSIAN LANGUAGES. Persian fiction is not limited to works written in the Persian language, or to works written within the geographical boundaries of Persia herself.
-
FICTION, ii(g)
Shahwali Ahmadi
ii(g). IN AFGHANISTAN. The introduction of modern fiction in Afghanistan was concomitant with the institution of new educational and literary organizations, namely the Ḥabībīya School and Anjoman-e adabī, and the publication of the bi-weekly Serāj al-aḵbār-e afḡānīya, edited by Maḥmūd Ṭarzī, in the early twentieth century.
-
FICTION, ii(h)
Keith Hitchins
ii(h). IN TAJIKISTAN. Tajik fiction in the 20th century has drawn from a variety of sources.
-
FIEF
Cross-Reference
See EQṬĀʿ; LAND TENURE.
-
FIG
Hušang Aʿlam
the “fruit” of several species and subspecies of Ficus L. (fam. Moraceae) in the geobotanical area covered by K. H. Rechinger’s Flora Iranica.
-
FIGUEROA, GARCÍA DE SILVA Y
Michele Bernardini
(b. Zafra, 1550; d. at sea returning from Persia, 1624), Spanish diplomat and traveler.
-
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Cross-reference
See BADIʿ (1).
-
FĪL
Cross-Reference
See ELEPHANT.
-
FILBERT
Cross-Reference
See HAZELNUT.
-
FILIPPI, FILIPPO DE
Anna Vanzan
(1814-1867), a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Turin University.
-
FILM PRODUCTION
Cross-Reference
See Supplement; see also CINEMA.
-
FĪN
Cross-Reference
strict and spring near Kāšān. See BĀḠ-E FĪN.
-
FINKENSTEIN, TREATY OF
Cross-Reference
See FRANCE iii; GARDANE MISSION.
-
FIRE
Cross-reference
-
FIRE ALTARS
Mark Garrison
a structure used to to hold fire for urposes of veneration, probably contained within a metal or clay bowl. The term should probably be restricted to those structures which have a clear Zoroastrian religious context.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FIRE TEMPLES
Cross-Reference
See ĀTAŠKADA.
-
FIRE WORSHIP
Cross-Reference
See ĀTAŠ.
-
FIREARMS i. HISTORY
Rudi Matthee
in Persia. This article surveys the history and production of various firearms and artillery in Persia from their introduction to the 19th century.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FIREARMS ii. PRODUCTION OF CANNON AND MUSKETS
Parviz Mohebbi
By the last quarter of the 16th century, cannon-making was so common that cannons were constructed even on the spot during siege operations.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FIRMAN
Cross-Reference
See FARMĀN.
-
FIRST DASTUR MEHERJIRANA LIBRARY, THE
Miguel Ángel Andrés-Toledo
the second Parsi library founded in India, established in 1872 CE in Navsari (India) by the Meherjirana family and celebrated since the 12th century CE for its religious relevance for in Gujarat.
-
FĪRŪZ
Klaus Schippmann
(PĒRŌZ) Sasanian king (r. 459-84), son of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57).
-
FĪRŪZ BAHRĀM
Fariborz Majīdī and Hūšang Etteḥād
one of Tehran’s oldest high schools, founded by Parsi philanthropist Bahramji Bikaji as a memorial to his son Fīrūz, who was lost at sea in the Mediterranean in 1915. Bikaji’s initial plan was to build an elementary school in
-
FĪRŪZ MAŠREQĪ
Aḥmad Edāračī Gīlānī
(or Pīrūz; not Mošrefī as in Majmaʿ al-foṣaḥāʾ, p. 946), poet at the court of the Saffarids Yaʿqūb b. Layṯ (r. 867-78) and his brother ʿAmr b. Layṯ.
-
FĪRŪZ MĪRZA
Cross-reference
(1817-1886), sixteenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and grandson of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah. See FARMĀNFARMĀ, FĪRŪZ MĪRZĀ.
-
FĪRŪZ ŠĀPŪR
Cross-reference
name of a town on the left bank of the Euphrates five km north-west of Fallūǰa and sixty-two km west of Baghdad. See ANBĀR.
-
FIRUZ, MARYAM
Maziar Behrooz
Firuz was born into the royal Qajar family. Her father was ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Mirzā Farmānfarmā, the second son of Firuz Mirzā Noṣrat-al-Dawla Farmānfarmā, the sixteenth son of ʿAbbās Mirzā, son and the crown prince of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah, the second Qajar king.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FĪRŪZA
Cross-reference
See TURQUOISE.
-
FĪRŪZĀBĀD
Dietrich Huff
The plain of Fīrūzābād has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with a major Chalcolithic site, Tall-e Rīgī, in the south. Surrounded bys mountains with few access roads, it was chosen by Ardašīr-e Bābakān as the key stronghold in his revolt against the last Parthian king.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FĪRŪZĀBĀDĪ, ABŪ ṬĀHER MOḤAMMAD
Cross-reference
See Supplement.
-
FĪRŪZKŪH
Bernard Hourcade
name of two towns: (1) a fortified city in the medieval Islamic province of Ḡūr in Central Afghanistan, which was the capital of the senior branch of the Ghurid sultans (see GHURIDS) for some sixty years in the later 6th/12th and 7th/13th centuries; (2) fortress and surrounding settlement in the Damāvand region of the Alborz mountains in northern Persia.
-
FĪRŪZŠĀH-NĀMA
William L. Hanaway
pre-Safavid prose romance, the hero of which is Fīrūzšāh, son of Dārāb of the Kayanid house.
-
FISCAL SYSTEM
Multiple Authors
i. Achaemenid Period. ii. Sasanian Period. iii. Islamic Period. iv. Safavid and Qajar Periods. v. Pahlavi Period. vi. Islamic Republic..
-
FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENID, ii. SASANIAN
Mohammad A. Dandamayev, Rika Gyselen
There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates.
-
FISCAL SYSTEM iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD
JÜRGEN PAUL
iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD Such a system can be studied in at least three aspects: First, its relationship to the ruler or the government; second, its relationship to those groups in the population who serve as sources of revenue (“taxpayers”);
-
FISCAL SYSTEM iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS
Willem Floor
iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS The Safavid shah’s fiscal prerogatives were expressed by terms like bājgoḏār, bājsetān, and jezyagoḏār (tax assessor or tax taker).
-
FISCAL SYSTEM v. PAHLAVI PERIOD
MASSOUD KARSHENAS
The first attempts at setting up a modern fiscal system in Persian began after the Constitutional Revolution.
-
FISCAL SYSTEM vi. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
Adnan Mazarei
The receipt of large revenues from oil exports and their expenditure for developing various sectors of the economy, improving infrastructure, and providing social services have made the government’s fiscal policies a major determinant of the overall economic incentives, structure and level of economic activity.
-
FISCHEL, WALTER JOSEPH
David Yeroushalmi
(b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization.
-
FISH
Multiple Authors
in Persia. With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals (dolphins, whales, seals), and particularly, fishes. Thus the country has rich aquatic resources and considerable potential for fishing and aquaculture.
-
FISH i. FRESHWATER FISHES
Brian W. Coad
With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals, and especially fishes.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FISH ii. SALT WATER FISHES
Hušang Aʿlam
Except for occasional short reports by foreign researchers on some individual fish species from the Sea of Oman and the Persian Gulf, there was no comprehensive scientific study of the ichthyofauna of the region until the Danish H. Blegvad and B. Løppenthin’s systematic survey.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FISH iii. IN PRE-ISLAMIC PERSIAN LORE
Hušang Aʿlam
The Bundahišn contains interesting pseudo-scientific, mythical, and sometimes inconsistent information about fishes.
-
FISH iv. FISH AS FOOD
NAJMIEH BATMANGLIJ
Although fish is the main source of animal protein along the northern and southern coasts of Persia, it is not much eaten in the rest of the country but in a smoked form as a delicacy traditionally served with rice and fresh herbs on the first day of the new year at the end of the zodiacal month of Pisces.
-
FISHERIES
Houshang Alam
There was no real fishing organization in Persia until the second half of the 19th century when Russian subjects, encouraged and backed by the Tsarist Russia’s expansionist policy, becameinncreasingly involved in coastal and fluvial fishing activities in the Caspian provinces of Persia.
-
FITZGERALD, EDWARD
Dick Davis
(1809-1883), British translator of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (by far the most famous translation ever made from Persian verse into English), as well as Jāmī’s Salāmān o Absāl and ʿAṭṭār’s Manṭeq al-ṭayr.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLAGS
Multiple Authors
This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ).
-
FLAGS i. Of Persia
A. Shapur Shahbazi
The earliest-known representation of lion and sun as a banner device is a miniature painting illustrating a copy, dated 1423, of the Šāh-nāma of Šams-al-Dīn Kāšānī—an epic composition on the Mongol conquest. A similar early depiction is on a large, double-paged miniature dated ca. 1460.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLAGS ii. Of Afghanistan
Habib Borjian
Nāder Shah’s (1929-33) policy of moderate reforms was reflected in the flag he reportedly used when he seized power—the tricolor flag introduced by Amān-Allāh; it was soon modified as a bound sheaf of wheat circling a stylized mosque, which recalls the mausoleum of Aḥmad Shah Dorrānī.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLAGS iii. of Tajikistan
Habib Borjian
On 28 April 1929, the constitution of the Tajik ASSR adopted a state arms and flag. The arms consisted of a hammer (bālḡa) and local sickle (dās) symbol against a star, which depicts a blue sky brightened by golden rays of sun rising above snowy mountains. The star is encircled on each side by wreaths of wheat and cotton.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLANDIN AND COSTE
Jean Calmard
Eugène Flandin was the son of Jean-Baptiste Flandin, an intendant in Napoléon’s armies. Little is known about his mother Marie-Agnès Durand. Eugène’s early years were linked with his father’s tumultuous career. He was only two years old when his family returned from Naples, where his father had been assigned since 1807, serving with Murat.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLANDIN, Eugène Napoléon Jean-Baptiste
Cross-Reference
(1809-1889), French orientalist, painter, archeologist, and politician, famous for the illustrated account of his travels in Persia. See FLANDIN AND COSTE.
-
FLOODS
Eckart Ehlers, Charles Melville
(sayl, sayl-āb) in Persia. i. Geographical survey. ii. Historical survey. Surplus or deficit of water, mainly caused by Persia’s topography, undergoes seasonal variations with decisively stronger precipitation during the winter months, which explains why floods occur predominantly during these periods.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLORA
Multiple Authors
i. Historical Background. ii. In Persia. iii. In Afghanistan
-
FLORA i. Historical Background
Karl Hummel
The indigenous knowledge of plants in Persia had a long standing tradition before the country’s flora was explored by Europeans, who were eventually joined in modern scientific botany by Persian botanists.
-
FLORA ii. IN PERSIA
Wolfgang Frey, Harald Kürschner, Wilfried Probst
With approximately six thousand recorded species of ferns and flowering plants, Persia harbors one of the richest floras of the Near Eastern countries, ranging from subtropical forests to dry-adapted woodlands, dwarf shrubs and thorn cushion formations, and semidesert shrublands.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLORA iii. In Afghanistan
Cross-Reference
-
FLORA IRANICA
Wolfgang Frey
a monumental work on the plants of Persia. Edited by Karl Heinz Rechinger of Vienna since 1963, Flora Iranica now consists of some 172 fascicles and is nearly complete. Only two spermatophyte families, the Cyperaceae and the Rubiaceae, are as yet lacking
-
FLORENCE
Cross-Reference
See ŠAH-NĀMA MANUSCRIPTS.
-
FLOWERS
Cross-Reference
See GOL.
-
FLOYER, ERNEST AYSCOGHE
Josef Elfenbein
Floyer became the first station chief at Jāsk in 1870, although he was only seventeen, and served until 1877. Goldsmid encouraged his station and substation staff to explore their surroundings, and Floyer was one of those who responded, taking a long leave of absence in 1876-77.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT
Gerd Gropp
(b. 18 February 1802, Bautzen; d. 5 July 1870, Dresden), German orientalist.
-
FLURY, SAMUEL
Jens Kröger
(1874-1935) pioneer of Islamic paleographical studies. Although Flury was primarily interested in problems of the development of Kufic script, much of his specific research was focused on monuments in Persia.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FOʾĀDI BOŠRUʾI, ḤASAN
Fereydun Vahman
(1899-1936), historian, philologist, educator, and head of Bahai schools in Iran and Turkmenistan.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FOḠĀN
Cross-reference
-
FŌLĀDĪ
Cross-Reference
Buddhist cave site in Afghanistan. See AFGHANISTAN viii.
-
FOLK POETRY
Philip G. Kreyenbroek
in Iranian languages. The term ‘folk poetry’ can be properly used for texts which have some characteristics marking them as poetry and belong to the tradition of the common people, as against the dominant ‘polite’ literary cult
-
FOLKLORE STUDIES
Multiple Authors
aims to provide a summary of folklore studies made in or about the Iranian world. It encompasses a wide field of varying notions, ranging from popular beliefs and customs to myths, legends and other genres of oral literature.
-
FOLKLORE STUDIES i. OF PERSIA
Ulrich Marzolph
The term folklore denotes, in a very broad sense, the traditional cultural expression of any notable group of people, not necessarily belonging to a specific social stratum.
-
FOLKLORE STUDIES ii. OF AFGHANISTAN
Margaret A. Mills and Abdul Ali Ahrary
Folklore may be defined as roughly comprising the oral-traditional component of culture, complementary or competitive with an official, canonical “written” culture, but this definition presents certain problems.
-
FOLŪS
Cross-reference
See CASSIA.
-
FONDOQESTĀN
B. A. Litvinskiĭ
(FONDUKISTAN), early medieval settlement and Buddhist monastery in Afghanistan, in the province of Parvān (Parwan). The site is usually dated to the 7th century CE on the evidence of artistic style and numismatic finds, the oldest of which is from 689 C.E. However, the shape and the decorations of the stupa suggest that the complex can be even earlier.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FOOD
Cross-reference
See COOKING.
-
FOOTBALL
Houchang Chehabi
(soccer). The game of football was introduced to Persia in the first two decades of the 20th century by British residents and American missionaries.
-
FOQAHA
Cross-Reference
plural of faqih “Islamic jurist.” See FEQH.
-
FOQQĀʿ
Sayyed Mohammad Dabirsiaghi
Early dictionaries describe foqqāʿ as a kind of barley wine or beer, but the semantic range later expanded to include juices from dried raisins, fruits, honey, and other ingredients.Both Persian and Arabic literature abound with references to foqqāʿ.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FORĀT
Cross-reference
See EUPHRATES.
-
FORĀT B. EBRĀHĪM
Meir M. Bar-Asher
Shiʿite(most probably Imami) Koran commentator and Hadith scholar. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but the time he flourished can be estimated by the dates of the scholars whom he quoted or who transmitted Hadith on his authority.
-
FORĀT MAYSĀN
Cross-reference
See BAHMAN ARDAŠĪR.
-
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Willem Floor
administration and ministry of foreign affairs.
-
FOREIGN EXCHANGE
Cross-reference
See ECONOMY.
-
FOREIGN POLICY
Cross-Reference
See FOREIGN AFFAIRS; ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS; ANGLO-PERSIAN AGREEMENT of 1919; ANGLO-PERSIAN WAR; ANGLO-RUSSIAN CONVENTION of 1907; and under individual countries and treaties.
-
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
Multiple Authors
i. Forests and Forestry in Persia. ii. Forests and Forestry in Afghanistan.
-
FORESTS AND FORESTRY i. In Persia
Eckart Ehlers
Less than 2 percent of Persia is covered by forests, while another 8 to 9 percent may be regarded as depleted former forest areas. Altogether, 150-160,000 km² are, or have been, densely forested areas.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FORESTS AND FORESTRY ii. In Afghanistan
Cross-Reference
See AFGHANISTAN xiii.
-
FORGERIES
Multiple Authors
of art objects and manuscripts. i. Introduction. ii. Of Pre-Islamic Art Objects. iii. Of Islamic Art. iv. Of Manuscripts.
-
FORGERIES i. INTRODUCTION
Abolala Soudavar
Early in the Islamic era, Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī described in his al-Aṯār al-bāqīa how emergent Islamic rulers of Persia had forged their lineage and invented connections with previous dynasties in order to affirm their own legitimacy.
-
FORGERIES ii. OF PRE-ISLAMIC ART OBJECTS
Oscar White Muscarella
Two kinds of forgeries affect the study of ancient Iranian artifacts: the modern creation of an object falsely presented as an ancient artifact, and the assertion that an unexcavated object comes from a specifically named site, thereby effectively forging its provenience.
-
FORGERIES iii. OF ISLAMIC ART
Sheila S. Blair
Medieval Arabic and Persian literature contain numerous anecdotes about the forging of manuscripts, but it was only in the late 19th century that forging Persian works of Islamic art became a widespread phenomenon.
-
FORGERIES iv. OF ISLAMIC MANUSCRIPTS
Francis Richard
Manuscripts in Arabic script have been forged or tampered with to enhance the value of a manuscript and to prove its antiquity.
-
FORṢAT-AL-DAWLA
Manouchehr Kasheff
(1854-1920), pen name of the poet, scholar, and artist Mīrzā Moḥammad-Naṣīr Ḥosaynī Šīrāzī. In 1908 he was appointed the first director of the Shiraz branch of the Department of Education. In Fārs he arranged for the establishment of modern schools and for the education of tribal children.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FORSTER, GEORGE
Michael J. Franklin
(1752-91), an East India Company civil servant, traveller, writer, and diplomatist.
This Article Has Images/Tables. -
FORTIFICATIONS
Wolfram Kleiss
The present article deals with the fortified passages and defenses that are implied under the term bārū. Certain passes in Persia still feature barriers going back to the Achaemenid period.
This Article Has Images/Tables.