Table of Contents
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EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS
Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr
Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.
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EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS
Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar
Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.
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EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA
EIr
Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers.
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EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS
Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr
No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn in the mid-19th century.
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EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION
David Menashri
Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.
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EDUCATION xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES
Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī
Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since.
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EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS
Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī
In March 1934 an act establishing lower and advanced schools for teachers’ training under the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) was adopted by the Majles, and an operating charter for such schools was ratified in July of the same year.
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EDUCATION xx. ADULT EDUCATION
Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr
The Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) established adult-literacy classes in state schools considered suitable. They were to last two years and to consist of ninety-six two-hour classes each year, free of charge. Reading and writing Persian, arithmetic, and elementary history, geography, and civics were to be taught.
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EDUCATION xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD
Afshin Matin-Asgari
A survey of 350 students abroad between 1811 and 1920 indicates that more than 50 percent of the total studied in France, about 15 percent in Russia, and 5-10 percent in Germany, England, Switzerland, Istanbul, and Beirut. A small number studied in Egypt, India, and the United States.
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EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Cross-Reference
See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION
Cross-reference
See MILITARY EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95
Golnar Mehran
The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization.
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EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD
Afsaneh Najmabadi
The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel teaching women to read was recommended, whereas other authors warned against it.
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EDUCATION xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER
EIr
In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly. In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level.
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EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN
M. Mobin Shorish
By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. Internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.
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EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN
Habib Borjian
Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardization, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.
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EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ
S. Moinul Haq
(b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.
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EFTEḴĀRĪĀN
François de Blois
a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.
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EGGPLANT
Cross-Reference
See BĀDENJĀN.
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EḠLAMEŠ
Cross-Reference
See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.
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EGLANTINE
Cross-Reference
See NASTARAN.
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EGYPT
Multiple Authors
relations with Persia and Afghanistan.
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EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period
Edda Bresciani
The last pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II in the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in 525 B.C.E.; Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid empire.
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EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period
Philip Huyse
In the fields of artistic work, architecture and sculpture, the Persians do not seem to have had any lasting impact on Egyptian tradition, during either both Achaemenid occupations of Egypt, or the short-lived presence of the later Sasanians.
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EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods
Heinz Heinen
It remains difficult to ascertain the proportion of ethnic Persians who survived the transition from Achaemenid to Hellenistic rule in Egypt or who came to that country after the conquest by Alexander.
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EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period
Ruth Altheim-Stiehl
The occupation of Egypt, beginning in 619 or 618, was one of the triumphs in the last Sasanian war against Byzantium. Ḵosrow II Parvēz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of the Byzantine emperor Mauricius.
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EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period
Cross-reference
See under FATIMIDS; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.
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EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period
Jonathan M. Bloom
Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works.
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EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period
Shahrough Akhavi
The beginnings of modern diplomatic relations between Egypt and Persia may be dated from 1847, when Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr(-e) Kabīr signed the second treaty of Erzurum with the Ottomans.
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EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times
EIr
Egypt, together with Turkey and the Caucasus, was one of the major sources of cultural and political influences in Persia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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EGYPT ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period
Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen
During the 16th-18th centuries, when Egypt was a province of the Ottoman empire, Persian literature was widely studied IN THE EMPIRE, and the Persian language was one of the administrative languages.
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EGYPT x. Relations with Afghanistan
Ludwig W. Adamec
Both Egypt and Afghanistan came under British hegemony in the latter part of the 19th century; therefore no official relations existed between them.
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EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt
Nassereddin Parvin
A number of Persian journals were published in Egypt, after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
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EHRBEDESTĀN
Cross-Reference
See HERBEDESTĀN.
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ĒHRPAT
Cross-Reference
See HERBED.
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EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM
Cross-Reference
See FARĀBĪ.
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EḤSĀN-ALLĀH KHAN DŪSTDĀR
Cosroe Chaqueri
(ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA
Īraj Afšār
(1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN
Kambiz Eslami
(d. Tehran, April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN
Iraj Afšār
(1818-88), also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-SALṬANA
Mehrdad Amanat
(1863-1936), Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament.
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EḤTĪĀJ
Nassereddin Parvin
weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. "night letters") in 1892.
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EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN
Cross-Reference
See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.
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EILERS, WILHELM
Rüdiger Schmitt
In 1958 Eilers was appointed to the professorship in Oriental philology at the University of Würzburg. Although he was offered in 1962 the professorship in ancient Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna, he stayed in Würzburg and taught there until his retirement in 1974.
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EJĀZA
Devin J. Stewart
"lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.
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EJMĀʿ
Devin J. Stewart
lit. "consensus"; a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh).
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EJMIATSIN
S. Peter Cowe
currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center.
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EJTEHĀD
Aron Zysow
in Shiʿism, an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of "exerting effort."
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EJTEMĀʿĪŪN, FERQA-YE
Janet Afary
(FEAM; lit., "Social-Democratic party"), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries.
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EKBĀTĀN
Cross-Reference
See ECBATANA.
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EKEŁEACʿ
James Russell
Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia.
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EKRĀM, MOḤAMMAD
J. Bečka
or Ekrom, b. ʿAbd-al-Salām (1847-1925), known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče, a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher.
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EKRĀMĪ, JALĀL
J. Bečka
or Jalol Ikromī (1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan’s most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period.
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EḴŠĪD
F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams
Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (ʾ)xšyδ and in Manichean script as (ʾ)xšy(y)δ.
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EKSĪR
Cross-Reference
See KĪMĪĀ.
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EḴTESĀN, TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD
Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi
b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad.
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EḴTĪĀR MONŠĪ, ḴᵛĀJA
W. Thackston
(fl. mid 10th/16th cent.), a master calligrapher of the chancery taʿlīq style from Herat.
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EḴTĪĀR-AL-DĪN
Maria Eva Subtelny
the citadel of Herat located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick and a larger area to the west of unfired brick—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers which reflect various periods of construction.
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EḴTĪĀRĀT
David Pingree
lit. "choices, elections"; a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings.
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EḴWĀN AL-MOSLEMĪN, JAMʿĪYAT AL-
Rudi Matthee
lit. "Society of Muslim brethren"; the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt.
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EḴWĀN AL-ṢAFĀʾ
Paul E. Walker
a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars.
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ELĀHĪ
Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During
or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.
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ELĀHĪ HAMADĀNĪ, SAYYED MĪR ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD
M. Asif Naim-Siddiqi
b. Ḥojjat-Allāh Asadābādī, a poet of the 17th century from Asadābād, a village near Hamadān.
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ELĀHĪ QOMŠA’Ī, MAHDĪ
S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī
b. Abu’l-Ḥasan (b. in Qomša, 1902; d. in Tehran, 1975), poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy.
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ELAHI, BIJAN
Mahdi Ganjavi
(1945-2010), modernist Persian poet and translator.
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ELĀHĪ-NĀMA
Cross-Reference
See ʿAṬṬĀR.
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ELĀHĪYĀT
Cross-Reference
See PHILOSOPHY.
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ELAM
Multiple Authors
ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period.
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ELAM i. The history of Elam
F. Vallat
During the several millennia of its history the limits of Elam varied, not only from period to period, but also with the point of view of the person describing it. It seems that Mesopotamians in the late 3rd millennium B.C.E. considered Elam to encompass the entire Persian plateau.
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ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam
Elizabeth Carter
The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.
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ELAM iii. Proto-Elamite
R. K. Englund
"Proto-Elamite” is the term for a writing system in use in the Susiana plain and the Iranian highlands east of Mesopotamia between ca. 3050 and 2900 B.C.E., a period generally considered to correspond to the Jamdat Nasr/Uruk III through Early Dynastic I periods in Mesopotamia.
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ELAM iv. Linear Elamite
MIRJO SALVINI
a system of writing used at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. by Puzur-Inšušinak, the last of the twelve “kings of Awan,” according to a king list found at Susa. He ruled ca. 2150 B.C.E. and was a contemporary of Ur-Nammu, the first ruler of the Ur III dynasty in Mesopotamia.
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ELAM v. Elamite language
FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI
is known from texts in cuneiform script, most of them found at Susa but some from other sites in western and southwestern Iran and, in the east, in Fārs and ranging in date from the 24th to the 4th century B.C.E.
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ELAM vi. Elamite religion
F. Vallat
The information furnished by archeological excavations in Persia and by cuneiform documents permit a summary description of some aspects of Elamite religion from the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. until the Achaemenid period.
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ELAM vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam
SYLVIE LACKENBACHER
Most non-Elamite texts inscribed on Elamite territories have been found in Susiana, that is, the region nearest to Mesopotamia and most exposed to Mesopotamian political and cultural influences.
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ELBURZ
Cross-Reference
See ALBORZ.
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ELBURZ COLLEGE
Cross-Reference
See ALBORZ COLLEGE.
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ELČĪ
David O. Morgan
(īlčī) envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter.
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ELECTIONS
Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash, M. Hassan Kakar
i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan.
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ELEGY
J. T. P. de Bruijn
(Ar. marṯīa, Pers. mūya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature.
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ELEMENTS
Mansour Shaki
i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Manicheism. iii. In Persian.
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ELEPHANT i. IN THE NEAR EAST
François De Blois
i. IN THE NEAR EAST
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ELEPHANT ii. In the Sasanian Army
Michael B. Charles
ii. IN THE SASANIAN ARMY
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ELEPHANTINE
Edda Bresciani
the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene.
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ELGOOD, CYRIL LLOYD
F. R. C. Bagley
(1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia.
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ELIAS OF NISIBIS
Cross-Reference
See ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ.
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ELĪF EFENDI, Ḥaṣīrīzāda
Tahsin Yaziçi
(b. in Sütlüce, May 1850; d. 4 December 1926), Turkish poet and scholar.
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ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ
Wolfgang Felix
(975-1049) prominent Nestorian polyhistor. 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Bēṯ Nuhādrē in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Naṣībīn). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues.
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ELIKEAN, GRIGOR E.
Aram Arkun
(1880-1951), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature.
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EŁIŠĒ
Robert W. Thomson
or Elisaeus, fifth century author of the History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith.
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ELJIGIDEI
Peter Jackson
or Īlčīktāy, Īljīkdāy; the name of two Mongol generals.
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ELLIPI
Cross-Reference
See ASSYRIA.
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ELM
Hūšang Aʿlam
any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called nārvan in Persian.
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ʿELM AL-KETĀB
Cross-Reference
See DARD, ḴᵛĀJA MĪR.
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ʿELM O HONAR
Nassereddin Parvin
title of two Persian magazines.
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ʿELMĪ
Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī
a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy.
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ELOQUENCE
Cross-Reference
(Faṣāḥāt). See BAYĀN (1).
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ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART
Malcolm E. Yapp
(1779-1859), author of an important description of Afghanistan; a British Indian official who rose to become governor of Bombay.
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ELQĀNIĀN, ḤABIB
Shaul Bakhash
Jewish merchant, industrialist, and philanthropist, who rose from modest beginnings to become one of Iran’s leading entrepreneurs.
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ELTON, JOHN
John Perry
(?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār.