Table of Contents

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWBAḴTĪ, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ.

• EBN NOṢRAT, AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL- DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  (b. 1356; d. ca. 1433), Timurid poet.

• EBN QEBA, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Martin McDermott

  b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians.

• EBN QOTAYBA, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Franz Rosenthal

  b. Moslem DĪNAVARĪ, (828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the “Arab sciences,” including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith.

• EBN QŪLAWAYH, ABU’L- QĀSEM JAʿFAR

  Martin McDermott

  b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Mūsāb. Qūlawayh Qomī Baḡdādī (d. Baghdad, 978 or 979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abū Jaʿfar Kolaynī and teacher of Shaikh Mofīd.

• EBN RABĪṬ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDĀN B. AL-RABĪṬ.

• EBN RĀVANDĪ, ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. Yaḥyā (d. 910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin.

• EBN RĒVANDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBN RĀVANDĪ.

• EBN ROSTA, ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿOmar (d. after 903), Persian author of a geographical compendium.

• EBN RŪḤ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ.

• EBN SAʿD, ʿOMAR

  Jean Calmard

  (k. Kūfa 686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN

  Wilferd Madelung

  family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (10th century) and his son.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN, ABŪ ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD.

• EBN ŠĀHAWAYH

  Wilferd Madelung

  a leader and envoy of the Carmatians.

• EBN SAHLĀN SĀVAJĪ, Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR

  Hossein Ziai

  (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician.

• EBN ŠAHRĀŠŪB, ABŪ JAʿFAR ZAYN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century.

• EBN SĪNA

  Cross-Reference

  See AVICENNA.

• EBN SORAYJ

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD B. ʿOMAR B. SORAYJ.

• EBN ṬABĀṬABĀ, ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 933), poet and critic.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L- FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, 12th century Imami scholar.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ

  Etan Kohlberg

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar (b. Ḥella, 21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Ḏu’l-ḥasabayn “possessing two distinctions” because he was descended from both Ḥasan and Ḥosayn.

• EBN TORK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. VĀSEʿ.

• EBN TORKA

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ.

• EBN YAMĪN, AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 14th century.

• EBN ZĪĀD, ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  Jean Calmard

  (b. ca. 648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī.

• EBRĀHĪM

  Amnon Netzer

  Abraham, the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people.

• EBRĀHĪM ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN, ĀQĀ EBRĀHĪM.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ADHAM

  EIr

  b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 8th century.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ALPTIGIN, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ESMĀʿĪL

  Sheila S. Blair

  Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See TAHERIDS.

• EBRĀHĪM B. JARĪR

  Munibur Rahman

  author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī.

• EBRĀHĪM B. MASʿŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dīn, etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 1059-99). 

• EBRĀHĪM B. NAṢR

  Cross-Reference

  See BÖRĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ʿOṮMĀN

  Sheila S. Blair

  Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelatʿi in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia.

• EBRĀHĪM BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM DEDE ŠĀHEDĪ

  Tahsin Yazici

  Turkish poet and lexicographer.

• EBRĀHĪM FĀRŪQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  15th century poet and author of Farhang-e Ebrāhīmi. See under FARHANG-E EBRĀHIMI.

• EBRĀHĪM ĪNĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Yenāl (d. 1059), early Saljuq leader.

• EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. 1745, d. 1800/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period.

• EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR

  GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN

  Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN AFŠĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AFSHARIDS.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAFFĀRĪ, MOḤAMMAD-EBRĀHĪM Khan.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN QĀJĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ẒAHIR-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHIM KHAN.

• EBRĀHĪM LODĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LODĪ DYNASTY.

• EBRĀHĪM MAWṢELĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Everett Rowson

  the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids.

• EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ

  Marianna S. Simpson

  (b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.

• EBRĀHĪM NAẒẒĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM.

• EBRĀHĪM ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM ŠARQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠARQĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM SHAH AFŠĀR

  John R. Perry

  nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1748-49)

• EBRĀHĪM ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Carl W. Ernst

  historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty of Bījāpūr (b. 1540-41).

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  (1394-35), b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher.

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN, ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN.

• EBRĀHĪM ṬEHRĀNĪ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a 19th century calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script.

• EBRĀHĪMĀBĀDĪ DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See RĀMANDĪ.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• ʿEBRAT

  EIr

  a monthly magazine first published on 4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār.

• ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Munibur Rahman

  author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.

• ʿEBRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  "hebrew." See under JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES.

• EBTEHAJ, ABOLHASSAN

  Geoffrey Jones

  (1899-1999), prominent banker, economic planner, and one of the most important and powerful figures in the economic history of Iran during the middle decades of the 20th century.

• ECBATANA

  Stuart C. Brown

  present-day Hamadān, capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times.

• ECKMANN, János

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1905-1971), a Hungarian Professor of Chaghatay.

• ECOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  the study of organisms, both flora and fauna, in relation to their environments. Five primary ecological regions in Persia each have a characteristic combination of features: Caspian lowlands, Alborz system and mountains in Khorasan, Persian plateau,  Zagros system. Makrān mountains, and the Persian Gulf lowlands.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY

  Multiple Authors

  i. Economic geography, ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period, iii. In the Achaemenid period, iv. In the Sasanian period, v. From the Arab conquest to the end of the Il-khanids, vi. In the Timurid period, vii. From the Safavids through the Zands, viii. In the Qajar period, ix. In the Pahlavi period, x. Under the Islamic Republic, xi. In modern Afghanistan, xii. In Tajikistan.

• ECONOMY i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The high plateau and its external relations. The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult.

• ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Robert C. Henrickson

  Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times.

• ECONOMY iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase.

• ECONOMY iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  Ryka Gyselen

  The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 1)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  The economic order in Islamic Persia was in theory, if not always in practice, derived from Islamic norms.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 2)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  The political breakdown of the caliphate in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries, although disastrous for the finances of the state and for agriculture in ʿErāq-e ʿArab and, perhaps, also in Ḵūzestān and parts of western Persia, did not have ill effects immediately on the economic life of Persia as a whole.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  As the needs of the state grew, there was a constant shortage of specie to meet its expenses. As a result of the devastation and demographic decline brought about by the invasions, there was less land under cultivation and fewer people engaged in agriculture.

• ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria E. Subtelny

  The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations.

• ECONOMY vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS

  Bert Fragner

  The first Safavid king, Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure.

• ECONOMY viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Hassan Hakimian

  At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy.

• ECONOMY ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  M. Hashem Pesaran

  Overall, under the Pahlavis the Persian economy made significant advances which compared favorably with the experience of countries such as Turkey and Egypt, which were in a better state of development after the First World War.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Vahid F. Nowshirvani

  Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, and major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY xi. IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN

  M. Siddieq Noorzoy

  From 1970 until the coup d’état in April 1978, followed by the Soviet invasion in December 1979, the Afghan economy experienced sustained high economic growth. Gross domestic product rose at a rate of 4.5 percent annually.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY xii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  During the seventy years of centralized Soviet administration, the economy of Tajikistan was modernized and integrated into the Soviet economy. The Tajik Soviet Republic exhibited comparatively remarkable growth in the agricultural and industrial sectors.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿEDĀLAT, ḤEZB-E

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī in December 1941.

• ʿEDĀLAT-ḴĀNA

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• EDEB

  Amir Hassanpour

  b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.

• EDESSA

  Samuel Lieu

  now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene.  Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. The fact that coins were minted at Edessa under Antiochus IV suggests a degree of autonomy and importance in the Seleucid period. Greeks were never predominant in the population, however.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDITING

  Karim Emami

  the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia.

• EDMONDS, C. J

  Yann RICHARD

  The son of a British missionary, Edmonds was born in Japan, where he stayed up to the age of eight. He was educated in England at Bedford and Christ’s Hospital public schools and finally studied oriental languages at Cambridge under the supervision of E. G. Browne for two years.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.

• EDUCATION i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) “Persian boys (who) are copying texts” are mentioned; the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen.

• EDUCATION ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period.

• EDUCATION iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

  Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia,  children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd, mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA

  Christopher Melchert

  lit., “place to study” Ar. darasa “to study”. It was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts.

• EDUCATION v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. These schools were local efforts, however, and did not constitute a unitary system of education.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN

  ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ

  Every mosque also contained a chamber called a ḥojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years.

• EDUCATION vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION

  Ahmad Ashraf

  A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS

  Tūrān Mīrhādī

  Formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to ca. 1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues today. By 1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

  At first primary and secondary schools were not distinct, and the primary levels sometimes consisted of only four grades. There were no general instructional materials and no uniform curriculum, each school being under the direction of its founder or principal.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  After the Constitutional Revolution some of these schools were closed, and the others were brought under state management. During the next fifteen years several more private schools were founded.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

  Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

  In 1958 the General Department of Vocational Training was established in the Ministry of Education. It was responsible for establishing a number of agricultural, industrial, commercial, and secretarial schools. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.